Bani Yas Island

United Arab Emirates has a fruitful history since it’s founding as one nation. This nation was originally composed of tribal groups along the territory within the Gulf of Persian the Oman Gulf. This country was converted into Islam in the year 600 A. D. Long before that, there were archaeological evidences that Christianity thrived in this Muslim nation, as shown by many relics proving that claim. One particular island named Bani Yas possesses some of these artifacts that were discovered by many scientists exploring for ancient traces.Moreover, they found out the natural beauty of the island and explored its abundant possibilities to become one of the beautiful tourist spots in the world. After that discovery, many investors were invited to see the potential of the Bani Yas Island. They market the place in its bounty with regards to wildlife and natural resources. According to these people, Bani Yas Island has one of the greatest potential in ecological tourism. The Bani Yas I sland can be located approximately 270 miles west of Abu Dhabi. It was highly regarded as one of the most prominent and greatly honored tribes in the southern part of Arabia.Its place in history began when a person named Yas Bin allowed other tribes to join their clan in order to establish more security and power. Those tribes joined Yas Bin’s tribe to secure their corresponding clans since Yas Bin’s tribe was so powerful then in term s of its military force. Because of that, Bani Yas became the largest tribe in the emirates nation. They made up of approximately 20 clans. They settled on Abu Dhabi on the year 1793. Form this tribe came the present leaders of Abu Dhabi. These people usually spent their summer with other members of the tribe by hunting pearls using boats.When winter comes, they spent their time in the desert with their camels. In addition to this, this tribe was the first to acquire valuable lands that eventually became one of the causes of many disputes of other states. In the year 1833, a prominent faction of the Bani Yas tribe went to Dubai and eventually became the ruler of that place. This leadership lineage continued up to the present day. With respect with the other subsections of the Bani Yas tribe, some clan thrived by fishing and hunting of pearls while others ventured on planting crops. Some tribes focused on the camel business or rearing goats and sheep for living.Other subsections focused on trading goods with other foreign tribes. After a certain period, many archaeologists made an exploration on the supposed location of the former tribe Bani Yas. This exploration was executed in the year 1992 where those who led the site investigation found several discoveries. They found relics of the tools used by the people of the Bani Yas tribe and other important things related to their way of living during their existence. In the year 1993, another excavation was initiated and found more relevant information about the Bani Yas people.They made more than thirty site divisions during the whole exploration process. In some of the sites they explored, they discovered that long before Islam captured the tribe’s religious association, there are traces of a Christian church built in that area. They found relics of a monastery, a clear indication that a church was established before Bani Yas embraced the Islam religion. Furthermore, they also acquired evidences of other cultures in other key sites that might have affected the norms of the people who are living in that era. The rich history of the Bani Yas can also be associated with its natural resources.In terms of its reserves, the place can be said to have plenty of such gifts from nature. The island is proliferated by mountains, which resembles the shape of a cone. Slightly inclined plains along with numerous mangroves on the sides then surround these mountains. With these, a small wharf can be found along the shoreline of the island. The leaders that have this jurisdiction over this territory developed these beautiful sights further. The island also possesses a lot of wildlife diversity within its region. Various species of animals and birds can be found thriving in the island of Bani Yas.Animals like gazelle and Oryx can be found roaming freely in that area. Before, these animals were supposed to be endangered but because of the efforts of the people responsible in the development of the area, these species has grown in number. Other species originated form other countries can also be found living in the Bani Yas island. Moreover, the island eventually became one of the homes of various migratory birds coming form other places on the planet. Birds like flamingos take their shelter in the mangroves that can be found in the island.Others thrive in lagoons and other places that these birds nests. An artificial lake was constructed also and became the primary attraction for numerous types of ducks in the area. Other species of bird s also thrives in the region, making a clear indication of its natural beauty and habitat for wildlife. Pastures are being dominated by many species of deer and other fowls like peacock and others. Attractive insects can also be found in the region enjoying the trees planted in the island of Bani Yas. Such attractive insects are responsible for more beauty in the nature and the balance in the ecosystem.As a result, more beautiful flowers blooms around the island, and fruits are also abundant in the region. From being a desert, the leader occupying the island made wondrous make over on the island, making it more attractive to both animals and even humans who visited the place. He made plantations and fruit bearing trees thriving in the island because of his consistent efforts to develop the area. With regards to the potential of the island as a tourist spot, more consistency the maintenance of the island is needed, knowing that the island was a desert before.Ecotourism is not usual f or regions particularly in the Middle East region but with this island, it would be possible to have a good resort within the region. As far as the implications are concerned, authorities should be alarmed that since the Bani Yas was a desolate place before, they should put more efforts in maintaining the ecosystem they established in the region. As far as the potentials of the island is concerned, there are a lot of prospective in the island of Bani Yas. One of its great features is that it offers tourists with the opportunities to experience safari adventures, and snorkeling.The visitors of this island can experience full recreation with nature and its benefit of full relaxation. Since its development is a clear breakthrough in the field of establishing ecosystems out of a desolated island, this place will surely catch a lot of interests for many people and scholars as well. Another key feature of the island is its richness in cultural heritage with those who once lived there in t he island of Bani Yas. As discussed on the previous statements above, people who lived in this island possessed interesting details on their way of living and their circumstances in life.Relics found on this island would surely catch more attentions on people who are inclined with digging ancient things from the people of the past. The discovery of traces resembling Christian institution in a Muslim-dominated region is another mystery that will attract more scholars and ordinary people in finding facts about the history of the Bani Yas tribe. With regards to its ambience, Bani Yas Island can offer a new outlook for those who lived in the desert for a long time. They will experience living with nature, which is not available on people thriving in the Arabian region.This will definitely give an embrace of new culture in nature’s aspect for people who would like to try living in a serene island with a sustained ecosystem in its surroundings. The developers of this island constru cted different establishments, which will provide more relaxation and recreation on the part of the prospective visitors. One particular structure that was built in the island to cater its visitors is the resort spa. The structure is intended for those who would like to avail of spa services and hotel accommodations.The building consists of more than 60 rooms for tourists who would like to stay in the island. This would offer visitors to avail of this good service while in the island, making it more exciting for many tourists that will be visiting the site. For those who want to conduct camps, group dynamics and other activities, the island can arranged these features in a better setting which is inside nature landscapes and other beautiful sites in the region. For those who love experiencing wildlife adventures, Bani Yas offers this authentic approach in dealing with these demands.Tourists can experience this interaction with animals similar to other safari sites. The developers of the island made a sanctuary for plants and animals to maintain the balance in the ecosystem. Such endangered species already found their homes in the island, a clear indication of the island’s readiness to be a wildlife sanctuary for diversified animal species. The people responsible for the development of this island also built specialized centers that focus on taking care of the plants and animals within the region.This center also conducts researches on how to improve further the current setting of nature in the island. Sustained development is also vital in the work being conducted in the center because this will ensure the good setting of the structures that were built in the island. For birds, they continually place mangroves and other habitats that can attract many species of birds to live in the island. Because of these efforts, many migratory birds have found home on this strategic place. They also established waterways, which are critical in maintaining the presenc e of various animal and bird species in the island.Another big project being established in the Bani Yas Island is the continuous research and development on building structures that will utilize renewable energies as the primary source of energy in the island. This exploration will surely provide more sustainability in the island since the power source will not depend on coals and petrochemicals. It is a given fact that utilizing these as fuels will degrade the air quality of a particular place, making it hazardous to anyone that will be exposed into it.The island developers realize the relevance of maintaining a good ecosystem by utilizing renewable fuels like solar and wind energies. Putting up solar panels in strategic locations and windmills in the island are the priorities of the developers of the island with regards to the power plant constructions are concerned. Once these renewable energy factories are established in the region, there will be a lot more people who will be i nterested in visiting the place. This would also take its place in the history as one of the beautiful places in the world utilizing green energies.The world’s recognition will also be given to the island for its effort in utilizing clean energy sources and being one of the few tourist destinations that implemented such policies in the field of energy utilization. Furthermore, there are far more expansion that should be emphasized as far as the Bani Yas Island is concerned. One particular highlight in the island is its continuing expansion in its beach resorts. This would open more spaces available for people who would want to enjoy the scenery of the beachfronts.Another development that must be underlined is its continuous expansion on the wildlife parks that will provide more rooms for other animals to roam around the area. Such expansion would encourage proliferation of more animals as well as on other species. Another highlight on the island is the establishment of its ow n safari park where various animals can interact with people who wish them to see these creatures in motion. A farm was also established and will continue to expand this structure for a more sustainable energy source for the island.In addition to that, the development of more hotel buildings which can be classified as one of the best in the Asian region are being prioritized to accommodate the needs of the tourists and even other Arab people. These would also attract prominent individuals to visit the island because of the best hotels that are being established in the Bani Yas island. Commercial establishments are also being developed and expanded like shopping malls, fine dining restaurants, campsites, and other amenities that they can offer to the people.Putting up of residential homes is also being developed in the region to provide for those who would like to stay near the beautiful expanse of the island. Such townhouses, condominiums will surely add more attraction to other pro minent people who would choose to stay in the region. For those who are fond with the excavation and explorations of ancient articles, the island also continue to increase its archaeological sites to serve the needs of those who are venturing with the study of the island’s heritage.Current development in the Bani Yas Island includes the start of wind turbine system that provides power in the area. Even though this may not be enough to shoulder the whole energy needs of the island, the developers are looking for more of these implementation to fulfill their target of having a one hundred percent dependence on the renewable energy factories. Another recent development is that the island will be open to daily visitors for them to witness the beauty of this island by the year 2009(Gulfnews, 2008). Up to now, the island is open only for hotel guests and not for just spectators or island visits only.The development of the island of Bani Yas will also generate more than 60,000 emplo yment opportunities once the operation started in full. The corresponding groups are also prioritizing coastal development in the island by carefully examining the topography of the area. This group of people provided a scale model which simulates the actual scenario of what would it be once the developed coastal shorelines are placed. They made physical modeling and wave simulation in studying the appropriate construction of the coastal lines around the island.The groups are placing a mixture of soil and textile material in putting up developments in the shorelines. According to the concerned group, this mixture of materials is better than using pure concrete in the coastal line construction in terms of its flexibility in the waves being thrown by the bodies of water surrounding the Bani Yas island. With regards to the evaluation of the benefits of the island as a future destination of many nature lovers and prominent people, it can be said that Bani Yas has the full potential in t erms of its nature expanse and established structures.Benefits can be enumerated in several ways. One of the benefits that can be provided by this island is the fact that they made a legacy for the next Arab generation. With the sustained development of the region, Bani Yas will continue to inspire other people to venture on creating their own plantation and wildlife park in the middle of a desert. Before, it was impossible to put up diversified species of plants and animals to thrive in a desert island because of its limitation in terms of water availability and soil composition.Bani Yas project made the impossible to be possible and created a lot of avenues in research about taking care of nature and its resources. Another great benefit of this project is on the tourism industry of the country. With the beauty being shown in the islands, there will be high demand for local and foreign visitors to go to Bani Yas Island. The investments done by the leader of the region will surely b ring good returns in the future considering the high potential in tourism and real state.In addition to that, the advantage of having revenues in tourism industry will open more jobs for local residents and other nationalities as well. In the near future, more profits will be enjoyed through sustained development of the island. More than pecuniary matters, the island will contribute a lot to the advocacies of many nations today to use clean energies in supplying power in their respective states. Bani Yas can serve as a role model for other communities in implementing such actions to initiate the usage of renewable sources of energy like solar and wind energy.

Diary of a Wimpy Kid

Diary of a Wimpy Kid diary of a wimpy kid Greg Is going to middle school, his mom bought him a â€Å"Diary† witch has the word â€Å"Diary† right in the middle and is in big letters. He is scared to bring it to school because he does not want some 8th grader to come see him with his bookdelay and think he is a sissy cause he has a diary In 6th grade and does not want to get punched and then get made fun of. Ergs big dream and what he thinks he Is going to be like in middle school Is this guy who so popular and knows him, and hen when he gets out of school, he is going to be really famous and when they want to know what his child-hood was like he is going to give them his diary, that's why he agreed to his mom to write in his diary. Greg is espoused to write in almost all year. Greg Is not really excited because A guy named Greg has a friend named Rowley and has been friends since Greg has moved to his new house.As soon as Rowley sees that a family has moved into the hou se, that was for sail, Roller's mom went to the store and bought him a book ladled â€Å"how to make friends† and kind of felt sorry for him so I pulled my wig for him. That how there friend ship started. There friends ship is a little wear at flirts. , Greg it this guy how thinks he is all that and thinks he is so popular. And when he Is older, he thinks he is going to be really famous. Lowly still thinks † hey I am only in 6th grade, I can still be a kid and use the word â€Å"PLAY† Greg hefty the book diary of a wimpy kid [ people think this book is just a funny book but what I hint is ] I think that if you have a really good friendship, and one of the friends said or did something heart-full, It can mess the whole thing up. 1: If you use your friend to make you a better person it can always turn back around just like when Greg made Rowley go down the BIG hill so Greg can throw a foot-ball at Rowley and so Greg can get a lot stronger. : when you have a really good friend you want to keep for a long time or a life time friend, you should ALWAYS be nice to them and respect them.If you have a friend that did something embarrassing or extenuated Diary of a imp kid Greg is going to middle school, his mom bought him a â€Å"Diary† witch has the word because he does not want some 8th grader to come see him with his bookdiary and think he is a sissy cause he has a diary in 6th grade and does not want to get punched and then get made fun of. Ergs big dream and what he thinks he is going to be like in middle school is this guy who so popular and EVERY-ONE knows him, and Greg is not really excited because called â€Å"how to make friends† and I kind of felt sorry for him so I pulled my wig for him. Hat how there friend ship started. There friends ship is a little wear at first. , Greg it this guy how thinks he is all that and thinks he is so popular. ND when he is older, grade, I can still be a kid and use the word â€Å"PIANO† † the book diary of a wimpy kid [ people think this book is Just a funny book but what I or did something heart-full, it can mess the whole thing up. 1: if you use your friend to make you a better person it can always turn back around 3: if you have a friend that did something embarrassing or extenuated Diary of a Wimpy Kid The story happened in East Ohio where Greg Heffley and Rowley Jefferson enters Middle School for the first time. *Greg Heffley – Known for his misadventures throughout his school. * Rowley Jefferson- He is the best friend of Greg. He is also immature and ignorant * Rodrick Haffley – He is the older brother of Greg. He is the main antagonist and constantly bullies Greg. The book opens with  Greg Heffley  saying how embarrassing it is to be having a journal with â€Å"diary† on the front and that whoever sees him with it will call him a â€Å"sissy†.Greg also goes to mention that one day he will become rich and famous but for now he is â€Å"stuck in middle school with a bunch of morons†. Greg faces too many hardships, including Halloween. As Greg and Rowley go Trick-or-Treating, they anger some teenagers who chase them. They barely escape but manage to get to Greg's grandma's house. The teenagers see them inside and Greg and Rowley taunt them. No t all goes to plan, though, and when they get home and Greg's dad, who was hassled by kids, throws water at them and the water soaks their candy.The Wizard of Oz play  is also a hardship for Greg. Patty Farell, who plays Dorothy, is coming on stage, and since Greg is a tree, he thinks he can throw apples at her, but the director takes this part out of the play for health and safety. Mrs. Norton, the music director, tries to make the trees sing an embarrassing song, but on the night nobody sings out of fear and the play is ruined. Greg and Rowley's friendship is starting to fall apart.Greg invents a game where one person throws a football to make the other fall off the Big Wheel; however when Rowley falls off, he breaks his arm. Greg is jealous of the attention Rowley is getting. Rowley is also framed for scaring kindergarteners, when it was Greg wearing Rowley's hat. When Greg confesses, Greg is kicked out, and Rowley is promoted. Rowley also declares himself the owner of a comic strip, Zoo-Wee-Mama, that was created by Greg and Rowley, but Greg drops out to make his own comic strip.The two stop being friends. Greg and Rowley get into a fight at the blacktop, when the teenagers from Halloween come, and grab Greg and Rowley. They make Rowley eat the cheese, and are going to make Greg do it, too, but Greg finds a way out. The students, however, notice the cheese is gone. Greg, being a good friend to Rowley, lies and says he threw it away, but this gives Greg the Cheese Touch. Greg and Rowley becomes friends again, and Greg begins to see the good advantages of having the Cheese Touch.Even though life is kind of unfair, you will somehow get through over it, you will always succeed if it is for good but if you fail, there is reason that God did that. Also, don’t ignore your friends because maybe they are the ones that will help you to succeed in life. Yes of course I will because this book has an effect to whoever reads it. My friend will learn how not to give up, fight for his/her rights and especially how to be â€Å"awesome†. Diary of a Wimpy Kid The story happened in East Ohio where Greg Heffley and Rowley Jefferson enters Middle School for the first time. *Greg Heffley – Known for his misadventures throughout his school. * Rowley Jefferson- He is the best friend of Greg. He is also immature and ignorant * Rodrick Haffley – He is the older brother of Greg. He is the main antagonist and constantly bullies Greg. The book opens with  Greg Heffley  saying how embarrassing it is to be having a journal with â€Å"diary† on the front and that whoever sees him with it will call him a â€Å"sissy†.Greg also goes to mention that one day he will become rich and famous but for now he is â€Å"stuck in middle school with a bunch of morons†. Greg faces too many hardships, including Halloween. As Greg and Rowley go Trick-or-Treating, they anger some teenagers who chase them. They barely escape but manage to get to Greg's grandma's house. The teenagers see them inside and Greg and Rowley taunt them. No t all goes to plan, though, and when they get home and Greg's dad, who was hassled by kids, throws water at them and the water soaks their candy.The Wizard of Oz play  is also a hardship for Greg. Patty Farell, who plays Dorothy, is coming on stage, and since Greg is a tree, he thinks he can throw apples at her, but the director takes this part out of the play for health and safety. Mrs. Norton, the music director, tries to make the trees sing an embarrassing song, but on the night nobody sings out of fear and the play is ruined. Greg and Rowley's friendship is starting to fall apart.Greg invents a game where one person throws a football to make the other fall off the Big Wheel; however when Rowley falls off, he breaks his arm. Greg is jealous of the attention Rowley is getting. Rowley is also framed for scaring kindergarteners, when it was Greg wearing Rowley's hat. When Greg confesses, Greg is kicked out, and Rowley is promoted. Rowley also declares himself the owner of a comic strip, Zoo-Wee-Mama, that was created by Greg and Rowley, but Greg drops out to make his own comic strip.The two stop being friends. Greg and Rowley get into a fight at the blacktop, when the teenagers from Halloween come, and grab Greg and Rowley. They make Rowley eat the cheese, and are going to make Greg do it, too, but Greg finds a way out. The students, however, notice the cheese is gone. Greg, being a good friend to Rowley, lies and says he threw it away, but this gives Greg the Cheese Touch. Greg and Rowley becomes friends again, and Greg begins to see the good advantages of having the Cheese Touch.Even though life is kind of unfair, you will somehow get through over it, you will always succeed if it is for good but if you fail, there is reason that God did that. Also, don’t ignore your friends because maybe they are the ones that will help you to succeed in life. Yes of course I will because this book has an effect to whoever reads it. My friend will learn how not to give up, fight for his/her rights and especially how to be â€Å"awesome†.

I Don; T Know Essay

Why or why not? All personal and confidential information should be limited to the bare amount of health care professionals. Only to carry out medical treatment (MLAE). 2. In this case, how would you be able to correct your error and provide the missing documents to the patient while still protecting patient confidentiality under HIPAA? You should contact the patient inform them you still have the documents, and ask if they ould like to come to get them (MLAE). 3. Besides a HIPAA Patient Release of Information form, list 4 other items that are found in the medical record. A privacy notice, acknowledgment that the privacy notice was received, a trading partner agreement, and an agreement reached with a healthcare professional business associates (MLAE). 4. Legally, does the patient or the physician/healthcare facility own the medical record? Why? The healthcare facility, but the patient can access them any time as long as the physician feels it will cause no harm to the patient (MLAE) . 5. List 3 ways patient confidentiality is maintained in the reception/waiting area of a medical office. Not discussing patient information in the lobby. Making sure computer screens are out of patients sight. Also making sure patients files are not left open (MLAE). 6. A breach of confidentiality can result in what consequences for a health care professional? This could result in possible termination, or possible civil action being taken (MLAE). 7. From the list of Interpersonal Ethics (found in Chapter 1 of the Fremgen text), please describe how any of those traits were demonstrated in your actions in this case scenario? Respect by looking to make sure you could access his information (MLAE). Unit 8 Project Questions: Part II 1. Would the action taken in this second scenario be within your scope of practice for your chosen field? Why or why not? No only physicians should be giving out prescriptions, and they should have never even looked in the file. They should have just taken a message for the doctor (MLAE). 2. What determines your scope of practice for your chosen career? What you study, and what the office you are working in tells you to do (MLAE). 3. Would Respondeat Superior apply in this case scenario? Why or why not? I would not think so, because this person was not acting within their scope of Employment (MLAE). 4. Would the Good Samaritan Law apply in this case scenario? Why or why not? No because this was not any emergency situation (MLAE). 5. What role does the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) play in regards to prescription medication? The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and supervision of food safety, tobacco products, dietary supplements, prescription and ver-the-counter pharmaceutical drugs (medications), vaccines, biopharmaceuticals, blood transfusions, medical devices, electromagnetic radiation emitting devices (ERED), and veterinary products (MLAE). 6. What role does the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) play in regards to prescription medication and a physician’s ability to prescribe narcotics? Physicians must have a DEA license to write prescriptions, and i t must be for the state they are practicing in (MLAE). References Bonnie F Fremgen, Ph. D. (2009). MEDICAL LAW AND ETHICS. New Jersey : Pearson Education Inc.

Critically appraise the value of the concept of 'inequality regimes' Essay

Critically appraise the value of the concept of 'inequality regimes' for understanding workplace inequalities - Essay Example They pathetically fail to understand the complex and intricate connectivity and linkages between the traditional and largely popular instruments of inequality that is gender, race and class (Ozbilgin ed. 2009). The notion of ‘inequality regimes’ exposes the intersectionality of the traditional modes and models of oppression resting on the foundations of gender, race and class (Acker 2006). The astuteness of this concept originates from its premise that the varied and isolated modes of oppression are in fact interrelated and connected, thereby perpetuating and propagating a system of oppression that escapes correction and rectification by virtue of its intricacy and cumbersomeness (Acker 2006). Once the co-relatedness of the individual and discrete forms of oppression and inequality is established and realized, it paves the way for identifying and isolating the barriers and impediments to the task of establishing equality at the workplace (Collins 2000). The limiting factor associated with the concept of inequality regimes is that it delves and elaborates on the inequalities rampant and practised at the workplace. According to Acker (2006), â€Å"inequality regimes are the interlocked practices and processes that result in continuing inequalities in all work organizations.† A more plausible line of argument would be that the realization and cognition of a situation of inequality is always associated with the complete life experience of women and coloured people (Acker 2000). The complete life experience includes both the professional and domestics life situations of the affected individuals and groups. However, pragmatically speaking, workplace represents the most appropriate venue for studying inequalities because not only a wide range of inequalities originate in organizations, but professional hubs also present a plausible and unique opportunity to trace the genesis and proliferation of inequalities in a

Philosophy and Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Philosophy and Technology - Essay Example Given any circumstance he would avoid confrontation and any kind of collision with an opposing party. War or aggression is the last thing on the mind of a pacifist. The author through the above statement is trying to convey that if a person who possesses the characteristics of a pacifist is made to work in a bomb factory he would still come up with a new idea to make a bomb. No matter how opposed a person might be towards the concept of waging a war, if the mind is put to work on a task that needs to be done, the task takes precedence against the principles. The chief duty is to design a bomb, and no matter how opposed the principles of the person concerned are, he would eventually end up innovating and creating a new type of bomb. According to the author technology has shaped the human mind and has been much of a latent threat to the very existence of mankind as much as it has been a boon. The author through his interpretation of the human psychology and the constant struggle betwee n the opposing forces of principle/conscience and duty has tried to convey that the human mind and its intrinsic qualities are overpowered by practicality and the reality of life. In this case the reality is the surrounding, the environment, and the opportunity to design a new type of a bomb. Human beings are thinkers, innovators and are prone to ideate. A constant undercurrent of the urge to experiment and innovate prevails on the human mind. The human psyche by nature is inclined to improvise and invent things from what it sees around it and in this example provided by the writer, he may go against his pacifism to design a new bomb within weeks. Even if this means going against his very fundamentals he would still be drawn to live a life of intellectual prosperity and independence. We live in an age where man’s lust for power and technological superiority overshadows basic principles of humanity and life. Man’s greed for machines and mechanisation is to such an exten t that he would let the machines take over and in turn be reduces to a defunct and cold vestige of sorts. In our age mechanisation and scientific leapfrogging has finally triumphed to an extent that we can actually feel the tendency of the machine to make physically and intellectually challenging human life impossible. (Orwell 193) Building and developing on the central theme of intellectual proliferation, am individual if confined to a secluded environment with a nature work that is opposed to him, he would eventually begin to put his mind over the job and end up doing the task. All the steam in the world could not, like the virgin build Chartres The second phrase is by Mont Saint Michel and Chartres. It exalts the triumph of technology and its ushering through the Industrial Revolution in the Western World. The power of the mother is represented through the phrase given above. It talks about the benefit of technology to the western world and the power of the Lady who ultimately se cures â€Å"†¦the place of woman in the Church to be the guardian of the primacy of the contemplative over the active, of persons over ideas, and of family over economy† (Mary Victrix 1) According to the author the power of technology is immense. Technology is compared to the power of the Lady, Virgin Mary. It was her power, influence and inspiration that led to the construction of the cathedral in Chartres, France. Mary Victrix 1). Technology is viewed

Is Kitsch always ironic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Is Kitsch always ironic - Essay Example All the above descriptions of Kitsch should be regarded as just part of a greater framework. More specifically, Kitsch can be related with various aspects of modern life with a special reference to art (as already explained above). Current paper examines a particular aspect of Kitsch: Irony. This sense is mostly related with Kitsch as part of the art trends within a particular society. In other words, the relationship between Kitsch and Irony could be developed mainly in the greater field of art. Towards this direction, it is suggested by Hjort et al. (1997, 229) that ‘the very notion of "taste" in art necessitates the existence of "bad taste" and, consequently, bad art; but bad art comes in many varieties and is subject to different kinds of objections; there is sheer technical incompetence, just to begin with (although artistic inability as such is much less fatal than it used to be)’. The above descriptions of Kitsch could be considered as valid only if referring to a rt; in other parts of social and political life Kitsch would be considered to take different format in accordance with the conditions applied on each particular area. As already mentioned above, Kitsch can have many different aspects. In accordance with a definition given by the Dictionary of Art (London, 1998) ‘â€Å"Kitsch† has sometimes been used (for example, by Harold Rosenberg) to refer to virtually any form of popular art or entertainment, especially when sentimental; but though much popular art is cheap and crude, it is at least direct and unpretentious’. In accordance with the above, it is stated by Calinescu (1987, 260) that ‘seen as a lie, a kitsch work implies a close relationship and even a collaboration of sorts between the kitsch-artist and the kitsch-man; the latter wants to be "beautifully" lied to and the former is willing to play the game in exchange for financial gain;

For the English Major Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

For the English Major - Essay Example Writer has shown a clear picture of slavery before 150 years by demonstrating the crazy process through which he has to go for learning to read & write. In this paragraph, he shows how his intense negative feeling about the slavery became his motivation for learning to read & write. Initially, the writer shows how reading has brought discomfort in his life because he started understanding his own situation and pointed his situation with negative words like wretched condition, beast, reptile, etc. The writer has successfully expressed his intensive hatred about the issue by using words of increasing power like abhor, detest, loathe, torment which have higher impact on the reader’s thinking about the issue. Reader completely enjoys the essay because of the live demonstration of intensive situation through rhythmic sentences like â€Å"I saw nothing without seeing it, I heard nothing without hearing it, and felt nothing without feeling it. It looked from every star, it smiled in every calm, breathed in every wind, and moved in every storm.† High quality essay is offered by showing firm transformation phase with the use of non-traditional English language like â€Å"Freedom now appeared, to disappear no more forever.† At the end of the essay, the writer has suggested the â€Å"Possibilities For Writing† which is also done very innovatively considering the significance of writer’s opinion about the core issue of slavery & education along with development of independent opinion of the reader in changed social & economic

The different types of protein defects that can be associated with the Essay

The different types of protein defects that can be associated with the red blood cell - Essay Example RBCs give blood its characteristic red color†. Hemoglobin is a metalloprotein, which means it is a protein that includes iron as one of its constituent atoms. For the reason of oxygen distribution, hemoglobin has multiple chemical â€Å"slots† for storing oxygen. This oxygen is acquired from the heart, where red blood cells are replenished with oxygen from the lungs. According toToole(2004: 32) â€Å"Red blood cells are unusual in having no nucleus, mitochondria and they are much thinner in the middle and so form a biconcave shape†. The red blood cell is the main component of the circulatory system, also known by the name of cardiovascular system. In the circulatory system, the channels know as arteries hold oxygen-rich blood for distribution to the body, while veins give back oxygen-poor blood to the heart for replenishment. The oxygen levels of blood can be assessed by looking at its color – oxygen-poor blood has bluish color, while oxygen-rich blood looks red. The second important function to carrying oxygen although less commonly known, is the capability of red blood cells to carry carbon dioxide. CO2 is a waste product formed due to metabolism in every cell in the human body Red blood cells measure a diameter of about 6-8 micrometers (millionths of a meter), similar in size to much of the cells in the body. An RBC is biconcave in shape.Rosenberge (2010)states that â€Å"Red blood cells completely lack in most other common cellular parts, such as a nucleus with DNA, or mitochondria†. Due to their small shape and physical structure, the RBC can squish in to the small capillaries where the blood vessels are the smallest. Without this nature of flexibility , they have a high chance of getting stuck and cause obstructions in the circulation Because red blood cells are so important to your body, when they dont work properly, it often leads to

The Great Crew Change Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Great Crew Change - Research Paper Example This crisis which resulted into a significant gap in the workforce by both ages and experience was referred to as the great crew change. The great crew change has created major dilemmas to the oil industry as the baby boomers are currently approaching their retirement age leaving insufficient and less experienced workers to continue with the projects. This presents a possibility of losing the tribal knowledge in the sector, irrespective of how hard and vigorous the recruitment drive is done. This paper will therefore discuss the impacts of the great crew change, its scope of effect and the overall steps that have been made to mitigate the situation (Clark, Davidson, Guilford & Parry, 2006). The expected mass exodus of experienced petroleum engineers is expected to have impacts on various countries including but not excluded to the United States. The depression that affected the oil industry in the 80s and 90s affected major developed economies and this has been attributed to the experience gap that is currently witnessed in the industry. Companies operating in the oil and gas industries in different countries of the world are facing the great crew change according to a workforce forum conducted in cape town in 2008. Despite the fact that the United States statistics on workforce gap being available, the effects have been felt in other countries with some countries suffering from the knowledge gap most (Irgens, 2008). According to the Brazilian NOC petrobras, the 90s was occasioned by minimal recruitment of geoscientists and petroleum engineers. This resulted into a situation where the scientists in the company either have 10 years less experience or even more that 20 in some instances. The Indian economy and oil industry has also been affected by this phenomenon according to the Indian national oil company which believes that the perceptions that were created in the 80s and 90s pushed away potential engineers (Clark,

Proper Management, The Managerial Process Essay

Proper Management, The Managerial Process - Essay Example The major objective of this project is focused on extension of the life of the terminals through replacement of infrastructure to make it more efficient to park, to enable passengers check through security and locate their luggage. The plan comprises of new self service technologies, better stores where people can eat and shop. This will make the Airport more modern, sophisticated, and efficient and a more exciting travel destination. Currently, Terminal D can now cater for more incoming international flights due to the recent addition of three gates at the corridor connecting D and B International terminals. The ongoing renovation will also reopen the existing satellite facility at the E terminal and also build stations for the planned extension of the DART program (Dallas Area Rapid Transit). Risk Analysis is the process that characterises the likelihood, vulnerability and the extent of any risk associated with the occurrence of any natural, manmade or technical disasters as well as other emergencies addressing scenarios of concern and their probable consequences during an ongoing project (Hester, 13). Risk evaluation and analysis at the Dallas Fort Worth International Airport has been done to achieve the programs objective in the expected time, cost and safety and also observe environmental responsibility. An effective risk management process when carried out helps identify sources of risks, uncertainty and evaluating their impact and also helps to determine the most suitable management processes. The TRIP program is subject to higher risk due to the complicated features of the construction processes such as a long period of time before the program is completed, an integrated process, financial intensity and a wide organizational structure. As such, the project manager and the team undertaking of risk assessment and management is crucial to the delivery of the project’s objectives. Risks associated with the TRIP program are divided in to three major

Place Your Vote Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Place Your Vote - Essay Example Why energy is an important factor to consider when electing a presidentI would like to bring back some memories that most Americans would love to erase from their memories. This concerns the high oil prices that were experienced during Bush’s tenure in White House in 2008. This is a clear indication of the intricate nature of the oil prices to the American economy. Schoen (2008) while talking about the price increases by over 50 percent in January of 2008 observed that:â€Å"Airlines have been struggling to make a profit, even as they cut jobs and flights. American Airlines became the latest to announce it was tightening its belt another notch, saying Thursday that it plans to shrink capacity by as much as 12 percent and cut thousands of jobs† (Schoen, 2008)Furthermore, Schoen elaborates that these airlines were contemplating an increase in the prices of checking the first bag. He contends that smaller airlines would have had to file for bankruptcy. Other industries, su ch as the automobiles also experienced a drop in sales which is definitely not good to the overall wellness of the economy. Moreover, the price of food and other household goods were expected to rise. Threats of inflation were being envisaged at the time and these tended to spill over to the housing sector and the credit markets (Schoen, 2008). This led to job losses, higher costs of living and a generally dented economy.During this trying time inflation was attributed to the high oil prices that were being experienced.  

Impact on Women and African-Americans Essay Example for Free

Impact on Women and African-Americans Essay These changes included more rights and jobs to many different men and women in America that would help change America into what it is today. At the time of World War I, Many whites were recruited in the military and sent to Europe. The result was a demand for workers in all types of jobs. Many African-Americans facing a plight in the south because of drought, loss of jobs, and racial discrimination immigrated to northern cities like New York, St.Louis, and Chicago. Between 1910 and 1930, over hundreds of thousands of African Americans moved. In northern cities African Americans could work at steel mills, munitions plants, stockyards, and the new automobile assembly line opened by Henry Ford specifically for African Americans. The African Americans that had moved to the city lived in poor slums, also known as ghettos. The African Americans usually lived in one-room kitchenettes. Many African-Americans took the opportunity to start new business such as hairdressing. With many African Americans succeeding in â€Å"areas of finance that whites considered too risky† . The whites discriminated against African Americans because African-Americans competed with whites for jobs because they work for less and are sometimes used as strikebreakers, or people who would be hired when workers in a union went on strike. Instead of Migrating to the north many Africans joined the effort to help the war. There were 2 sides that had different opinions about the war. On one side was W. E. B. Du Bois who believed that â€Å"African-American support for the war would lend strength to calls for racial justice. On the other side there was William Monroe Trotter, who believed that African-Americans should not support the American government who was racist towards the African-American community. Eventually 367,710 African-Americans were drafted into the war and were separated into black only regiments. Before the war many women worked as housewives and only worked in the textile industry. During the war, many men who went off to war got replaced by women in their workplace. Women now worked as sellers, elevator operator, chauffeurs, street car conductor, railroad worker, and even farm workers. Many women started working as telephone receptionists and telegraph workers, because many jobs believed that women were more apt than men to do that kind of work. The government also had the need for women to get government jobs. Government jobs open at the time were clerks, stenographers, and telegraphers. Because of World War I, many women were in demand in the job market and soon women enrolled in courses of higher education. Women started learning more about mathematics because women were dominating over the many industries at the time. Newspapers even started articles designed for women. With higher education some women even advanced in the medical field and law field to become doctors, lawyers, and bankers. When women started working in factories, they faced hardships in working conditions. There were dangerous fumes and explosive dangers. There was always the risk of accidental explosions. It was even harder for mothers because there were not any child care policies offered by many companies. Women soon began making unions, such as the National Women’s Trade Union League, where women met and found ways to help raise women wage and have better work conditions. Some women were among the soldiers in the battlefields. Many women who worked on the frontlines were nurses, and the usual requirements were 16 years of age and plain looking. Women who were nurses learned basic medical procedures and helped wounded soldiers with treatment and sometimes helped bath and organized time off for soldiers. Women also cooked in the frontlines as well as driving ambulances. The women effort in war also spread to the weapons industry. Many women worked with ammunition while men were gone. Women that worked with ammunition had to face dangerous working conditions in factories with explosives. Women worked well with machines and were soon renowned for their skills in operating and being fast learners. Women worked on spreading peace. Many women volunteered in the Red Cross and their facilities. The women in the Red Cross aided the war efforts by working as nurses, by rolling bandages, knitted, socks and worked hospitals for the military. Women also pushed for peace movements. A famous woman, Jane Addams was one of the founders of the Women’s Peace Party and was still actively participating even after the United States entered into the war. The impact of women on the war finally led to the 1919 pass of the Nineteenth amendment that was made to help the women’s suffrage cause, it said that states could not deny any citizen the right to vote because of their sex. In the 1920s most immigrants came from southern and Eastern Europe. Most of these immigrants did not speak any English and were therefore discriminated against. Anti-immigrant feelings arose because many of the Americans believed these new immigrants would not be loyal to their country. Soon organizations like the Committee of Public information (CPI) emerged. The CPI set up Loyalty leagues in other countries to promote more care for America among immigrants. We see that WWI helped open the doors for many opportunities to people of all sex and race. Women gained new rights and were more respected in the economy. African-Americans found more jobs, and immigrants learned about the Americas and its greatness even before arriving in America.

Appropriation and Important Postmodern Strategy

Appropriation and Important Postmodern Strategy Important shifts in visual strategies in the arts mark the historic cross-over from the Modern to the postmodern paradigm. While this holds equally true in music and literature, it is the evolution of such strategies in the visual arts that this essay concentrates on. While such demarcation cannot be pinned down to a specific year or date, it is possible to convincingly chart this shift via an examination of the working strategies of three important painters: Americans Andy Warhol and David Salle, and Australias Imants Tillers. Postmodern art, by definition, rejects strict genre confines and, unlike modern art, celebrates the mixing of forms and ideas. As a result of this rejection, postmodernism advertises the use of irony, parody, satire, humour and collage. The use of appropriation in art is a useful strategy for commenting on or criticising aspects of life by recontextualising an image or object of already determined meaning. Giving new meaning to, or building upon the meaning of, an existing idea by redefining its context is an effective tool that alters or interferes with the viewers original association with an object or idea. This being immediately recognisable as a postmodern approach due to its embrace of contradiction, diversity and the unconventional. This is important as the message translates easily, giving meaning to a modern day audience. David Salles Tragedy, 1995, is a diptych. The right-hand panel is performed in grisaille, a technique predominantly used to render figures from one base colour or monotones, greatly accentuating the mood. In this panel are two figures, a smirking female, obliquely behind the main male figure who sits with hands on knees with the face distorted into a grotesque parody of despair. The left panels apparent pastiche is backgrounded by what appears to be a domestic scene derived from a 1950s advertisement, possibly a direct reference to Richard Hamiltons landmark artwork Just what is it that makes todays homes so different, so appealing? (1956), a work widely considered as a seminal precursor to Pop art. There is also a possible death motif in reference to the Cold War and the anxiety of the Atomic age of the post-WW2 West. In the centre is a black and white photograph of a bomb blast, surrounded by lemons, with a black glove at the top right corner. The explosion could also be representational of death, as well as the black glove being a traditional mourning trope, these funerary motifs all relating back to the tragic tone of the artwork, and the mans expression. Salles work is more about juxtaposition which he uses as a strategy to destabilise the ways in which we traditionally see, and at the same time reconfigure traditional visual narrative. He leans heavily on a simple strategy of montaging images of the banal and everyday. The effect is jarring and visually disturbing. In this, we can see his indebtedness to the better aspects of Pop like Warhol and James Rosenquist. Salle also created another diptych work entitled Comedy (1995) using the same layout, but mirrored with opposite facial expressions on the figures; as the man with an exaggerated frown in Tragedy now smiles in Comedy. The left panel of Comedy is also rendered in grisaille. In the right panel, an advertisement for a bedroom suite is set on its side and like the artists early works is collaged with additional imagery: a black and white photograph of a headless female fashion mannequin, enclosed by a garland of butterflies, and below a theatrically ruffled harlequin collar.   The paired titles may refer directly to Salles set and costume designs for ballet and theatre, as well as his endeavour into directing the 1995 feature film Search and Destroy. The tropes of the frilled glove and harlequin collar in Salles work of the early nineties hints to his involvement with the performing arts. A cinematic feel can also be identified in Salles juxtapositions of scenes that conjure a cinematic impression in which components are arranged to produce an alternative meaning that is not, indeed cannot, be seen in the singular images alone. The fact that the images of the man in the foreground are reversed when comparing Comedy and Tragedy also gives the viewer an ironic configuration of the Janus, the tragic and comic faces are referenced, via each other, into a singular idea. The God Janus was the protector of gates and doors, beginnings and endings and dates to Roman times. But beyond the traditional trope of the Janus, is the fact that he is two-faced. It may be of some interest to note that, before making it big as an artist Salle worked for a short time in the late 1970s as a paste-up artist for  Stag magazine, a pornographic publication. It is interesting to note that highly sexualised and fetish images making a regular appearance in his works of the 1980s. In  Tragedy  the main figure is haloed by a biomorphic shape, at once visceral and phallic. If this motif is indeed phallic, along with the bomb blast possibly symbolising a premature explosion, Tragedy may well portray a failure of male potency. Taking this reading,  Comedy must surely read as the opposite: the main male figure beams, proud and confident as opposite a bio-morphically enclosed female mannequin in a flowing gown stands without a head. The fact the female mannequin is headless is also interesting, being without identity, the female strictly objectified. The porn aesthetic is genuinely interesting though. While porn does not read compositionally the same as any other figurative traditions, porns narratives run to succinct, highly predictable paradigms. Pasting-up, now a dead skill as all such work is now done on a computer, was physically very much like a collage. Pasting-up is a compositional exercise where images and/or text are literally separate physical items pasted into position on a board for photo reproduction prior to final printing. So we could argue that some of Salles visual sensibility the recurring figures and images, the outlines of figures and objects cast over earlier images and grounds could have derived from his work for a porn publication. Salle was raised on the mythology of the Abstract Expressionists. Accordingly, the scale of his work is New York School-size; his 1995 diptych Tragedy is over 3.5 metres in length. Salle also defers to the Abstract Expressionist myth of all-over composition, the famous domain of Jackson Pollock. But rather than the frenetic, energetic marks of Pollocks famous Poured Period, Salle crams his canvasses full of eclectic figures and objects, often dissimilar and jarring, often seemingly disconnected and layered. It is an ironic homage to the macho painters of the New York School. Salle is widely considered one of the early blatantly postmodern painters by virtue of his subversion of the recognisable, and by distorting the familiar via awkward juxtapositions and unlikely compositional decisions. He drew from such widely artistic traditions as Minimalism, Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art, Realism and Cubism as well as images from popular culture. Although much of his work seems highly symbolic, Salles paintings seem not to contain a specific message, but rather leave space for the viewer to interact, to read into, the work. It is this interaction that brings the work to meaningful completion. This active engagement of the viewer is also a prime postmodern strategy. Imant Tillers use of quotation and appropriation has seen him classified as one of the early postmodern painters. His approach has a clearly personal element, despite appropriating imagery from both unknown and famous artists alike. Tillers 1985 work The Nine Shots is a an abstract figure who appears to be laying sprawled on his back, with nine target shapes all about him. Instantly, one can see the direct influence of Indigenous art influence on this piece. Tillers notably recontextualises the circular Indigenous motif for camp site or resting place to represent bullet holes. The main Aboriginal image Tillers has appropriated in The Nine Shots was Michael Nelson Tjagamarras Five dreamings, 1982. This appropriation lead to some considerable controversy, with allegations that appropriating Aboriginal imagery without permission impinged upon the moral privileges of the artist. The offence being exacerbated by the indissolubility of Aboriginal art from its environment. Tillers seemingly questioned identity established by and arising from locality by displaying appropriated cultural imagery with other images from different contexts. Over the next decade Tillers relationship with aboriginal art developed, even to the point of gaining a personal friendship with Tjagamarra whose work he incorporated without permission, the two even collaborating together in Nature Speaks: Y (Possum Dreaming) in 2001 using Aboriginal Walibri motifs. Walibri icons subsequently appearing as common elements in Tillers later work as a result. Tillers appropriation of aboriginal signs seems now to be more an appreciation of their artistic power. Although there has been no change in Tillers practice of appropriating Aboriginal art in his own work without permission, it could be deduced that the moral dilemma surrounding the re-using of sacred Aboriginal artworks has become less controversial, its treatment becoming more alike non-aboriginal art. While appropriating, building upon, borrowing from and being influenced by others art is now a mainstay of postmodern art, it is never going to be without hazard as art is not confined to particular types of objects. Aboriginal art it is a device of selfdom, a title deed to the land, a cypher of ancestral presence. It is the situation that Aboriginal law reserves rights to produce these sacred works to a limited group of artists and the infraction of these rights in the unauthorised borrowing of such art can be seen as a type of sacrilege that affects the foundation of the artists society. While widely recognised as the chief proponent of the Pop idiom, specific early works by Andy Warhol can retrospectively demonstrate the decline of the Modernist period. Warhols rejection of the machismo of the New York School is a classic Oedipal strategy. The best of the Abstract Expressionists had traded heavily on the supposed Jungian content of their work, whereby meaning was derived from the actual physical laying down of paint on canvas. Most notable of these, of course, was Jackson Pollock who was on the record in interview touting his Jungian pedigree. By implication also, this Jungian ideal cashed out on the implicit value of originality. To witness the extent to which adoration of the authentic mark of the artist extended, one only need examine the huge, stark calligraphic works of Franz Klein. But Warhol was notable in his total rejection of these ideas. His foppish, effeminate persona stood starkly at odds with the Abstract Expressionists who, we must remember, were still practising in the years of Warhols emergence in the early 1960s. In place of the Abstract Expressionists tortured surfaces were Warhols radically underworked monochrome renditions of newspaper advertisements and newspaper headlines as in  $199 Television, 1961. Warhols Campbells soup can, along with images of CocaCola bottles and Marilyn Monroe became the Pop Art movements representing motifs. The soup can being a satirical comment on Americas consumerism. By using the familiar image of Marilyn Monroes face he has turned it purely into an icon of pop culture, and no longer a person with depth and character. Her depiction is now just a shallow symbol of fame and beauty. Warhols signature use of the silkscreen completed his rejection of the New York style of painting of the late 1940s and 1950s. The silkscreen stood as a reproducible artwork, and the mechanic nature of this production put the artists hand at one remove from the finished product, especially given Warhol employed assistants to make the actual work while he stood as supervisor, and oversaw production.   In 1964 Warhol was one of ten artists commissioned to produce work for the World Trade Fair to be held in New York. Warhols contribution, Most Wanted Men, 1964 featured silkscreen portraits taken from FBI mugshots. This mural-sized work was installed on the outside wall of the Circarama, a one hundred foot circular cinema in which a 360-degree view of New York was projected. Within days of its installation, however, the Circaramas architect, Philip Johnson, had asked Warhol to remove Most Wanted Men, saying the New York State governor thought it would offend the many Italians among his constituents, given all the men depicted were Italian. Given twenty-four hours to replace or remove the work, Warhol had his assistants scale ladders and cover the portraits with industrial silver paint. The strategy is intriguing. Beginning with the idea of appropriating photographs, photo-silkscreening them to find the appropriate scale, and then, after the order that it be removed, Warhol chooses not to replace the work, but complete it with the metaphoric mirroring of the silver paint-out of the original image.   In real terms then, the interference or censoring offered by the Trade Fair organisers and associated politicians, did not necessarily result in a failure of this work. In the same way that many postmodern artists position their viewers to interact with a work in order to complete it, or find meaning, so Warhol played with the critical interference he was offered in a way that served the work and, perhaps more importantly, appended Most Wanted Men with a complex narrative that sited the artist as the  enfant terrible or provocateur who, in completing the work with a crude, industrial silver skin, metaphorically throws an unacknowledged and (given the ambiguity of its title, homoerotic) Narcissistic impulse back in the faces of the authorities. So whether the artists intent is purely representing a personal side of themselves to an audience, or to provoke controversy and questioning from the public, the use of appropriation is a useful strategy of postmodernity as it requires the participation of audience thought to make a work complete. This would seem very unconventional to Modern art, but thats what makes appropriation or recontextualization such a powerful postmodern tool. Salles personal love of the theatrical, Tillers questioning of sacred aboriginal art or Warhols parodic use of popular and commercial products; As can be seen from these well known artists and artworks of the postmodern era, building upon or giving new meaning to an image or object is a very efficient way of producing art with a message behind it.

Assessment of Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil

Assessment of Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil Hydraulic Conductivity Soil Chapter 1 Introduction Hydraulic conductivity or permeability of a soil is one important soil properties used in geotechnical engineering. It can be seen from the difficulty in measuring accurate and reliable values of hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic conductivity of soil is basically the capacity of water to let water to pass through the pores or voids in the soil. There are many methods developed in order to measure the hydraulic conductivity of soil; both laboratory and in-situ field methods. Some of the common laboratory methods are the constant-head test and falling head test. On the other hand, the common in-situ field methods are pumping well test, borehole tests (e.g. slug test, variable head test), infiltrometer tests and using porous probes (BAT permeameter). All these in-situ field test methods were used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of subsoil for both saturated and unsaturated media. One other in-situ field measurement method that has been introduced is the Two-Stage Borehole (TSB) test, also known as the Boutwell permeameter test. This testing method is commonly used to test a low hydraulic conductivity soil such as compacted clay liner used in landfill barrier system or covers used at waste disposal facilities, for canal and reservoir liners, for seepage blankets, and for amended soil liners. The advantage of using this method is that it can be used to measure both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values of soil, kv and kh respectively. One other advantages of using this method is that it can be used to measure the rate of infiltration of water or other fluid into a large mass of soil which can represent the tested site. However, the application of the TSB/Boutwell permeameter test for natural soil or other soils having a higher permeability value has been limited. This report will discuss the theory behind the TSB/Boutwell permeameter test and the application of this method on natural soil. The methodology of this test will also be included in this report. In addition to the standard TSB setup, this report will also discuss the modification made to the standard TSB test which can be easily and quickly installed in shallow boreholes for subsequent testing. The methodology and results from the modified setup will also be included. The results from both the standard and modified setup will then be compared. Objectives The objectives of this project is summarised into four stages. In the first stage, the objective is to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the soil using the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup. The second stage involves the modification of the standard TSB/Boutwell Permeameter setup. The aim is to obtain a simple installation setup which can be easily and quickly installed in shallow boreholes for subsequent testing. In the third stage, the objective is to test the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test in the field. This is done by carrying out a series of tests in varied subsurface media at the assigned site location. The results from both the standard and modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test will be compared. The last stage of the project consists of particle size analysis of the soil obtained from site. The results from the two setups will again be compared to the hydraulic conductivity values obtained from the derivation of the Particle Size Distribution curves. The tasks that are done in this project include: The review of TSB/Boutwell Permeameter methodology Developing the modify TSB/Boutwell Permeameter Completion of field tests using the TSB/Boutwell Permeameter Collection of soil samples and subsequent particle size analysis Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Soil Water Soils are consists of separate solid particles. The pore spaces between the solid particles are all interconnected which mean that water is free to flow through these interconnected pore spaces (Whitlow, 2001). The water will flow from a higher pore pressure point to a lower pore pressure point. The pressure of the pore water is measure relatively to the atmospheric pressure. The level in which the pressure is zero (i.e. atmospheric) is defined as the water table (Craig, 2004). The soil above the water table is assumed to be unsaturated and the soil below the water table is assumed to be fully saturated. The level of water table changes in relation with climate conditions and can also be affected by any constructional operations (Craig, 2004). It is usual to express a pressure as a pressure head or head which is measured in metres of water when considering water flow problems. According to Bernoullis equation, the total head at a point in flowing water can be given by the sum of three head components; pressure head (u/ÃŽ ³w), velocity head (v2/2g) and elevation head (Z). This relationship is illustrated in the equation below: (Equation 1) where; h = total head u = pressure v = velocity g = acceleration due to gravity ÃŽ ³w = unit weight of water Z = elevation head However, since the seepage velocities in the soil are so small due to the high resistance to flow offered by the granular structure of the soil, the velocity head is often omitted from the equation (Whitlow, 2001). The total head at any point is then can be adequately represented by: (Equation 2) In saturated conditions, the one-dimensional water flow in soil is governed by the Darcys Law, which states that the velocity of the groundwater flow is proportional to the hydraulic gradient: (Equation 3) where; v = velocity of groundwater flow = flow/area (q/A) k = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity (constant) i = hydraulic gradient = head/length (h/L) The empirical validity of Darcys Law depends heavily on the hydraulic conductivity, k, which must be carefully determined so that it can represent the soil mass (Azizi, 2000). The different practical methods that can be used to measure the hydraulic conductivity will be discussed in Section 2.3. It is important to study the flow of water through porous media in soil mechanics. This is necessary for the estimation of underground seepage under various conditions, for investigation of problems involving the pumping of water for underground constructions, and for making stability analyses of retaining structures that are subjected to seepage forces (Das, 2006). Hydraulic Conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability) Hydraulic conductivity, k, of a soil is the capacity of the soil to allow water to pass through it. The value of hydraulic conductivity is often used to measure the resistance of a soil to water flow. Hydraulic conductivity has units of length divided by time. The most common unit used of measurement is meter per second (m/s). Although hydraulic conductivity has the same unit as those to describe velocity, it is not a measure of velocity (Coduto, 1999). Importance of Hydraulic Conductivity Hydraulic conductivity is a very important parameter in geotechnical engineering or in determining the widespread of contamination. This can be seen in the difficulties in measuring it. This is because hydraulic conductivity can varies from one point in a soil to another, even with small changes in the soil characteristics. It is also, as mentioned in the previous section, influenced by the viscosity and unit weight of the fluid flowing through the soil. Hydraulic conductivity is also dependent to the direction of flow which means that the vertical hydraulic conductivity would not be the same as the horizontal hydraulic conductivity. This condition of the soil is said to be anisotropic. Studies that have been made indicate that the value of vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv) of a soil is usually higher than the horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kh) in one or two order of magnitude (Chen, 2000). Some applications in which information on hydraulic conductivity is very important are in modelling the groundwater flow and transportation of contaminants in the soil. Hydraulic conductivity data of a soil is also important for designing drainage of an area and in the construction of earth dam and levee. In addition, it is very important in tackling most of the geotechnical problems such as seepage losses, settlement calculations, and stability analyses (Odong, 2007). Factors Affecting Hydraulic Conductivity The hydraulic conductivity of a soil depends on many factors. The main factor that affecting the value of hydraulic conductivity is the average size of the pores between particles in the soil, which in turn is related to the distribution of particle sizes, particle shape and roughness, pore continuity, and soil structure (Craig,2004). In general; the bigger the average size of the pores, the higher the value of hydraulic conductivity is. The value of hydraulic conductivity of a soil that has a presence of small percentages of fines will be significantly lower than the same soil without fines. In the other hand, the presence of fissures in clay will result in a much higher value of hydraulic conductivity compared to that of unfissured clay (Craig, 2004). The range of the hydraulic conductivity value is very large. Table 1 below illustrates the range of hydraulic conductivity which differs from one soil type to another which is mainly due to the different average size of the pores between the soil particles. Table 1 Range of hydraulic conductivity values (m/s) with different soil type (Whitlow, 2001) 102 101 1 10-1 Clean gravels Very good drainage 10-2 10-3 10-4 Clean sands Gravel-sand mixtures 10-5 10-6 Very fine sands Silts and silty sands Fissured and weathered clays Good drainage Poor drainage 10-7 10-8 10-9 Clay silts (>20% clay) Unfissured clays Practically impervious The hydraulic conductivity is also dependent to viscosity and density of water in which both are affected by temperature. It is therefore conclude that the value of hydraulic conductivity will then be affected by changes in temperature. Theoretically, it can be shown that for laminar flow and saturated soil condition the relationship between temperature and hydraulic conductivity: (Equation 4) Where; ÃŽ ³w= unit weight of water ÃŽ · = viscosity of water K = absolute coefficient (units m2). This value is dependent on the characteristic of the soil skeleton. Since most of the laboratory graduations were standardised at 20C, the value of hydraulic conductivity at this temperature is taken as 100% (Craig, 2004). Other value of hydraulic conductivity at 10C and 0C are 77% and 56% respectively (Craig, 2004). Hydraulic Conductivity Tests Most of the tests for measuring hydraulic conductivity measured one average value of hydraulic conductivity. However, some tests measured both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values to obtained more accurate estimation. There are numbers of experiments and test that can be done to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. These tests to measure the hydraulic conductivity can be done both in the laboratory and in the field. The following sections will briefly discussed the most common laboratory and in-situ tests practiced today to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. Although with all the various tests developed to measured the hydraulic conductivity, there are uncertainties arise on how the soils that being tested represent the whole soil condition at the site of interest. It is therefore a good practice to perform different tests and comparing the results obtained. Laboratory Permeability Tests One problem with laboratory tests is that the samples collected do not adequately represent the detailed conditions of the soil, e.g. fissures, joints or other characteristics in the site of interest. Even with carefully conducted tests and good sampling techniques, it is impossible to obtain a very accurate result. The results typically have a precision of about 50% or more (Coduto, 1999). It is therefore important to take this into consideration if any construction activities or contamination remediation operations to be perform at the site of interest. Constant Head Permeability Test The constant head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of more permeable soils such as gravels and sands which have a hydraulic conductivity value of 10-4 m/s (Whitlow, 2001). The equipments used for this test is called a constant head permeameter. A schematic illustration of this equipment is shown in Figure 2.1. The constant head permeameter was developed base on the basic idea of Darcys Law (Equation 3). The soil sample is contained in a cylinder of cross-sectional area A. Continuous water supply is let to flow from a tank to the sample to maintain a constant head. The water that flow through the sample is collected in a collection jar or container and the discharge through the sample is measured by calculating the volume of the water in the collection container over a period of time t. h Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram of Constant Head Permeameter (www.geology.sdsu.edu) The hydraulic conductivity, k of the tested soil is then calculated by: From equation 3: (Equation 5) Where; Q = the discharge through the sample (m3/s) L = the length of the sample (m) A = cross-section of the sample (m2) h = hydraulic head (m) The above diagram shows a simple setup of the constant-head permeameter. Other setup is also available which make use a pair of standpipes to measure the pore pressure and potential at two points. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2 below. Although both the setups are different, it makes used of the same concepts; Darcys Law. Figure 2.2 Alternative setup of Constant Head Permeameter (Whitlow, 2001) Falling Head Permeability Test The falling head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of less permeable soils such as fine sands, silt and clay. The water flow resistance in these types of soil are very high which unable to measure accurate measurements of hydraulic conductivity if used with constant head permeameter. Undisturbed samples are required to perform laboratory test to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. However, a small degree of disturbance of the sample is accepted as it is very hard to obtain a perfect undisturbed sample. An undisturbed sample can be obtained usually using a U100 sample tube or a core-cutter tube (Whitlow, 2001).The schematic illustration of the falling head test setup is shown in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3 Laboratory setup of falling head test (Whitlow, 2001) The sample is place in a cylinder container with a wire mesh and gravel filter at both end of the cylinder. The base of the cylinder is left to stand in a water reservoir fitted with a constant level overflow. At the other end, which is the top of the cylinder, it is connected to a glass standpipe of known diameter (Whitlow, 2001). These standpipes are then filled with de-aired water and it is allow to flow through the soil sample. The height of the water in the standpipe is measured at several time intervals. The test is then repeated using standpipes of different diameters. It is a good practice to take note of the initial and final unit weight and water content of the sample to get additional information about the properties of the sample (Whitlow, 2001). The hydraulic conductivity of the sample is then calculated from the results obtained from the tests. The Darcys Law concept is still used in determining the hydraulic conductivity. The derivation of the hydraulic conductivity for the falling head test is done as follow (Whitlow, 2001). Deriving from Equation 3: With reference to Figure 2.3, if the level of the water in the standpipe fall dh in a time of dt the flow, q will be and the hydraulic gradient, i Therefore; (Equation 6) Where; a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe A = cross-sectional area of the sample When equation 6 is rearranged and integrated, the final equation to calculate the hydraulic conductivity is given as (Equation 7) Particle Size Analysis Particle size analysis is commonly used to classify the physical properties of the soil being tested. This testing method is used for both soil science and engineering purposes (Keller and Gee, 2006). In context of engineering purposes, it is commonly used to define the particle size distributions of the soil. The data obtained from the particle size distributions can then be used to estimate the pore-size classes needed in calculating the hydraulic properties of the soil such as hydraulic conductivity (Keller and Gee, 2006). There are various methods of measuring particle size analysis. Traditional methods include sieving, hydrometer and pipette. Other new techniques are also been developed; one example is laser-diffraction techniques (Eshel et al, 2004). However, particle size analysis is dependent on the technique used for defining the particle size distribution. It is therefore a common practice to do more than one method to define the particle size distribution (Keller and Gee, 2006). The results from all the different methods can then be compared to obtain more representative result. For the traditional particle size analysis methods, two separate procedures are used in order to obtain wider range of particles sizes (Head, 1980). The two procedures are sieving and sedimentation procedures (hydrometer or pipette method). Sieving is used to categorise large particle such as gravel and coarse sand. The particles can be separated into different size ranges using a series of standard sieves. For the finer particles such as silt and clay, sedimentation procedure is used (Head, 1980). Once the particle size distribution is defined from the particle size analysis, the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil can then be estimated using a number of established empirical equations. However, the applicability of the above equations depends on the type of soil that is being tested. The following paragraphs summarised several empirical equations from previous studies (Odong, 2007). Hazens equation: (Equation 8) Kozeny-Carmans equation: (Equation 9) Breyers equation: (Equation 10) Slitchers equation: (Equation 11) Where; g = acceleration due to gravity v = kinematic viscosity n = porosity of the soil d10 = grain size in which 10% the sample is finer than The estimation of the hydraulic conductivity from these equations required information on the kinematic viscosity v and porosity n of the soil. The kinematic viscosity can be calculated by: (Equation 12) Where; = dynamic viscosity ÃŽ ¡ = density of water The porosity n can be calculated using the empirical relationship below: (Equation 13) Where U is the coefficient of grain uniformity and is given by: (Equation 14) The values of d60and d10 can be obtained from the particle size distribution. d60and d10 represent the grain size for which 60% and 10% of the sample respectively is finer than. In-situ Field Permeability Tests Due to the problems associated with reliability and laboratory tests, as mention in Section 2.3.1, field methods of measuring the hydraulic conductivity should be used to obtain more accurate and reliable measurements. In the field test, the soil disturbances is kept to a minimum level and they usually involves the testing of larger, more representative samples. Although, in term of cost and time, field measurement method is more expensive, it will as well provide more reliable measurement of hydraulic conductivity when dealing with a wide range of soil macro-structural characteristics. Other more economic option of field measurement can also be done. Such example is by performing borehole test, provided the pumping observation sequences are carefully planned and controlled (Whitlow, 2001). Well Pumping Tests This method is more suitable if used to measure hydraulic conductivity in homogenous coarse soil strata (Craig, 2004). The procedure involves the measurement of water that is being pumped out of a well at a constant rate, then observing the effect of these pumping activities to the drawdown of the groundwater level at other wells. The diameter of the well is normally at least 300mm and penetrates to the bottom of the stratum under test (Craig, 2004). The pumping rate and the groundwater levels in two or more monitoring wells are then recorded. The analysis of the results depends whether the aquifer is confined or unconfined. Well pumping test in a confined aquifer In confined aquifer the permeable stratum is squeezed in between two impermeable layers. This is illustrated in Figure 2.4 below. To perform the test, the pumping rate must not be too high to reduce the level in the pumping well below the top of the aquifer. The interface between the top aquifer and the overlying impermeable stratum therefore forms the top stream line (Whitlow, 2001). Figure 2.4 Pumping test in confined aquifer (Azizi, 2000) Figure 2.4 illustrates the arrangement of the pumping well and two other monitoring wells. Two assumptions were made at this point; the piezometric surface is above the upper surface of the aquifer and the hydraulic gradient is constant at a given radius (Whitlow, 2001). In steady state condition, the hydraulic gradient through an elemental cylinder with radius r from the well centres estimated as follow: where; dr = thickness h = height The area in which the water flow, A: where; D = the thickness of the aquifer Substituting the area A into the Darcys Law (Equation 4) will give; Hence: And therefore the hydraulic conductivity is: (Equation 15) In the case that the piezometric level is above ground level, where the water level inside the well inserted into the confined aquifer rises above the ground level, this scenario is called Artesian conditions (Azizi, 2000). This is illustrated in Figure 2.5. Figure 2.5 Artesian conditions (Azizi, 2000) Well pumping test in unconfined aquifer An unconfined aquifer is a free-draining surface layer that allows water to flow through the surface. The permeable stratum is not overlain by an impermeable layer. The piezometric surface is therefore in the same level of the water table. This is illustrated in Figure 2.6 below. The surface layer permeability is very high, thus allowing the water table to fluctuate up and down easily. Figure 2.6 Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer (Whitlow, 2001) Under steady state pumping conditions, the hydraulic gradient i at a given radius is assumed to be constant in a homogenous media. Homogenous unit is where the properties at any location are the same. For instance, sandstone has grain size distribution, porosity and thickness variation within a very small limit (Fetter, 2001). With reference to the arrangement of pumping well and two monitoring wells in Figure 2.6 above, the hydraulic conductivity can be determine by: Deriving from Equation 3: where; Hydraulic gradient i is And area through which the water flow, Then, Thus, hydraulic conductivity for an unconfined aquifer (after integrating the above equation) is (Equation 16) Borehole Permeameter Tests There are many borehole tests developed to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. The most common in-situ borehole tests are as follow: Slug test Two-stage borehole test/ Boutwell Permeameter Variable head test In-situ constant head test Slug test is one of the cheapest in-situ field methods to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. The procedure of this test involves the rapid adding or removing a slug or water into a monitoring well. The slug can be of anything that can displace the volume of the water in the well, e.g. water, plastic tubing capped at both ends, and other material of known volume and can fit into the monitoring well. The rate of rise and fall of the groundwater level is then observed until it reaches an equilibrium state. In a variable head test, a slug is introduced into the monitoring well by either adding in a measured volume of water into the well or other materials mentioned earlier. The rate of water level fall is then measured in time. This is called falling head test. The water can also be removed out from the well by using a bailer or a pump. The rate of water level rise is then measured with time. This is called a rising head test. Depending on the properties of the aquifer and the soil, and the size of the slug used the water can either returns to its original water level before the test quickly or very slowly. For instance, if the porosity of the soil is high then the water level will returns very quickly to its original water level before the test is done. There is also the constant head test. In this test the water level or head is maintained throughout the test at a given level. This is done by adjusting and measuring the flow rate of the water at intervals from start to the end of the test (Whitlow, 2001). The constant head test is said to give more accurate results, provided the water pressure is controlled so that it would not cause fracturing or other disturbance to the soil (Whitlow, 2001). There are several assumptions made for this test: The soil is homogenous, isotropic, uniformly soaked Infinite boundaries Soil does not swell when wetted The expressions use to calculate the hydraulic conductivity for the above tests depend on whether the stratum is unconfined or unconfined, the position of the bottom of the casing within the stratum and details of the drainage face in the soil (Craig, 2004). The horizontal hydraulic conductivity is tend to be measured if the soil is anisotropic with respect to permeability and if the borehole extends below the bottom of the casing. On the other hand, the vertical hydraulic conductivity is often measured if the casing penetrates below soil level in the bottom of the borehole (Craig, 2004). The following expressions are all recommended in BS 5930 to calculate the hydraulic conductivity (Whitlow, 2001). For variable head test: (Equation 17) Or, (Equation 18) For constant head test: Hvorslevs time lag analysis (Equation 19) Gibsons root-time method (Equation 20) where; A20% clay) Unfissured clays Practically impervious The hydraulic conductivity is also dependent to viscosity and density of water in which both are affected by temperature. It is therefore conclude that the value of hydraulic conductivity will then be affected by changes in temperature. Theoretically, it can be shown that for laminar flow and saturated soil condition the relationship between temperature and hydraulic conductivity: (Equation 4) Where; ÃŽ ³w= unit weight of water ÃŽ · = viscosity of water K = absolute coefficient (units m2). This value is dependent on the characteristic of the soil skeleton. Since most of the laboratory graduations were standardised at 20C, the value of hydraulic conductivity at this temperature is taken as 100% (Craig, 2004). Other value of hydraulic conductivity at 10C and 0C are 77% and 56% respectively (Craig, 2004). Hydraulic Conductivity Tests Most of the tests for measuring hydraulic conductivity measured one average value of hydraulic conductivity. However, some tests measured both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values to obtained more accurate estimation. There are numbers of experiments and test that can be done to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. These tests to measure the hydraulic conductivity can be done both in the laboratory and in the field. The following sections will briefly discussed the most common laboratory and in-situ tests practiced today to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. Although with all the various tests developed to measured the hydraulic conductivity, there are uncertainties arise on how the soils that being tested represent the whole soil condition at the site of interest. It is therefore a good practice to perform different tests and comparing the results obtained. Laboratory Permeability Tests One problem with laboratory tests is that the samples collected do not adequately represent the detailed conditions of the soil, e.g. fissures, joints or other characteristics in the site of interest. Even with carefully conducted tests and good sampling techniques, it is impossible to obtain a very accurate result. The results typically have a precision of about 50% or more (Coduto, 1999). It is therefore important to take this into consideration if any construction activities or contamination remediation operations to be perform at the site of interest. Constant Head Permeability Test The constant head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of more permeable soils such as gravels and sands which have a hydraulic conductivity value of 10-4 m/s (Whitlow, 2001). The equipments used for this test is called a constant head permeameter. A schematic illustration of this equipment is shown in Figure 2.1. The constant head permeameter was developed base on the basic idea of Darcys Law (Equation 3). The soil sample is contained in a cylinder of cross-sectional area A. Continuous water supply is let to flow from a tank to the sample to maintain a constant head. The water that flow through the sample is collected in a collection jar or container and the discharge through the sample is measured by calculating the volume of the water in the collection container over a period of time t. h Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram of Constant Head Permeameter (www.geology.sdsu.edu) The hydraulic conductivity, k of the tested soil is then calculated by: From equation 3: (Equation 5) Where; Q = the discharge through the sample (m3/s) L = the length of the sample (m) A = cross-section of the sample (m2) h = hydraulic head (m) The above diagram shows a simple setup of the constant-head permeameter. Other setup is also available which make use a pair of standpipes to measure the pore pressure and potential at two points. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2 below. Although both the setups are different, it makes used of the same concepts; Darcys Law. Figure 2.2 Alternative setup of Constant Head Permeameter (Whitlow, 2001) Falling Head Permeability Test The falling head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of less permeable soils such as fine sands, silt and clay. The water flow resistance in these types of soil are very high which unable to measure accurate measurements of hydraulic conductivity if used with constant head permeameter. Undisturbed samples are required to perform laboratory test to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. However, a small degree of disturbance of the sample is accepted as it is very hard to obtain a perfect undisturbed sample. An undisturbed sample can be obtained usually using a U100 sample tube or a core-cutter tube (Whitlow, 2001).The schematic illustration of the falling head test setup is shown in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3 Laboratory setup of falling head test (Whitlow, 2001) The sample is place in a cylinder container with a wire mesh and gravel filter at both end of the cylinder. The base of the cylinder is left to stand in a water reservoir fitted with a constant level overflow. At the other end, which is the top of the cylinder, it is connected to a glass standpipe of known diameter (Whitlow, 2001). These standpipes are then filled with de-aired water and it is allow to flow through the soil sample. The height of the water in the standpipe is measured at several time intervals. The test is then repeated using standpipes of different diameters. It is a good practice to take note of the initial and final unit weight and water content of the sample to get additional information about the properties of the sample (Whitlow, 2001). The hydraulic conductivity of the sample is then calculated from the results obtained from the tests. The Darcys Law concept is still used in determining the hydraulic conductivity. The derivation of the hydraulic conductivity for the falling head test is done as follow (Whitlow, 2001). Deriving from Equation 3: With reference to Figure 2.3, if the level of the water in the standpipe fall dh in a time of dt the flow, q will be and the hydraulic gradient, i Therefore; (Equation 6) Where; a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe A = cross-sectional area of the sample When equation 6 is rearranged and integrated, the final equation to calculate the hydraulic conductivity is given as (Equation 7) Particle Size Analysis Particle size analysis is commonly used to classify the physical properties of the soil being tested. This testing method is used for both soil science and engineering purposes (Keller and Gee, 2006). In context of engineering purposes, it is commonly used to define the particle size distributions of the soil. The data obtained from the particle size distributions can then be used to estimate the pore-size classes needed in calculating the hydraulic properties of the soil such as hydraulic conductivity (Keller and Gee, 2006). There are various methods of measuring particle size analysis. Traditional methods include sieving, hydrometer and pipette. Other new techniques are also been developed; one example is laser-diffraction techniques (Eshel et al, 2004). However, particle size analysis is dependent on the technique used for defining the particle size distribution. It is therefore a common practice to do more than one method to define the particle size distribution (Keller and Gee, 2006). The results from all the different methods can then be compared to obtain more representative result. For the traditional particle size analysis methods, two separate procedures are used in order to obtain wider range of particles sizes (Head, 1980). The two procedures are sieving and sedimentation procedures (hydrometer or pipette method). Sieving is used to categorise large particle such as gravel and coarse sand. The particles can be separated into different size ranges using a series of standard sieves. For the finer particles such as silt and clay, sedimentation procedure is used (Head, 1980). Once the particle size distribution is defined from the particle size analysis, the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil can then be estimated using a number of established empirical equations. However, the applicability of the above equations depends on the type of soil that is being tested. The following paragraphs summarised several empirical equations from previous studies (Odong, 2007). Hazens equation: (Equation 8) Kozeny-Carmans equation: (Equation 9) Breyers equation: (Equation 10) Slitchers equation: (Equation 11) Where; g = acceleration due to gravity v = kinematic viscosity n = porosity of the soil d10 = grain size in which 10% the sample is finer than The estimation of the hydraulic conductivity from these equations required information on the kinematic viscosity v and porosity n of the soil. The kinematic viscosity can be calculated by: (Equation 12) Where; = dynamic viscosity ÃŽ ¡ = density of water The porosity n can be calculated using the empirical relationship below: (Equation 13) Where U is the coefficient of grain uniformity and is given by: (Equation 14) The values of d60and d10 can be obtained from the particle size distribution. d60and d10 represent the grain size for which 60% and 10% of the sample respectively is finer than. In-situ Field Permeability Tests Due to the problems associated with reliability and laboratory tests, as mention in Section 2.3.1, field methods of measuring the hydraulic conductivity should be used to obtain more accurate and reliable measurements. In the field test, the soil disturbances is kept to a minimum level and they usually involves the testing of larger, more representative samples. Although, in term of cost and time, field measurement method is more expensive, it will as well provide more reliable measurement of hydraulic conductivity when dealing with a wide range of soil macro-structural characteristics. Other more economic option of field measurement can also be done. Such example is by performing borehole test, provided the pumping observation sequences are carefully planned and controlled (Whitlow, 2001). Well Pumping Tests This method is more suitable if used to measure hydraulic conductivity in homogenous coarse soil strata (Craig, 2004). The procedure involves the measurement of water that is being pumped out of a well at a constant rate, then observing the effect of these pumping activities to the drawdown of the groundwater level at other wells. The diameter of the well is normally at least 300mm and penetrates to the bottom of the stratum under test (Craig, 2004). The pumping rate and the groundwater levels in two or more monitoring wells are then recorded. The analysis of the results depends whether the aquifer is confined or unconfined. Well pumping test in a confined aquifer In confined aquifer the permeable stratum is squeezed in between two impermeable layers. This is illustrated in Figure 2.4 below. To perform the test, the pumping rate must not be too high to reduce the level in the pumping well below the top of the aquifer. The interface between the top aquifer and the overlying impermeable stratum therefore forms the top stream line (Whitlow, 2001). Figure 2.4 Pumping test in confined aquifer (Azizi, 2000) Figure 2.4 illustrates the arrangement of the pumping well and two other monitoring wells. Two assumptions were made at this point; the piezometric surface is above the upper surface of the aquifer and the hydraulic gradient is constant at a given radius (Whitlow, 2001). In steady state condition, the hydraulic gradient through an elemental cylinder with radius r from the well centres estimated as follow: where; dr = thickness h = height The area in which the water flow, A: where; D = the thickness of the aquifer Substituting the area A into the Darcys Law (Equation 4) will give; Hence: And therefore the hydraulic conductivity is: (Equation 15) In the case that the piezometric level is above ground level, where the water level inside the well inserted into the confined aquifer rises above the ground level, this scenario is called Artesian conditions (Azizi, 2000). This is illustrated in Figure 2.5. Figure 2.5 Artesian conditions (Azizi, 2000) Well pumping test in unconfined aquifer An unconfined aquifer is a free-draining surface layer that allows water to flow through the surface. The permeable stratum is not overlain by an impermeable layer. The piezometric surface is therefore in the same level of the water table. This is illustrated in Figure 2.6 below. The surface layer permeability is very high, thus allowing the water table to fluctuate up and down easily. Figure 2.6 Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer (Whitlow, 2001) Under steady state pumping conditions, the hydraulic gradient i at a given radius is assumed to be constant in a homogenous media. Homogenous unit is where the properties at any location are the same. For instance, sandstone has grain size distribution, porosity and thickness variation within a very small limit (Fetter, 2001). With reference to the arrangement of pumping well and two monitoring wells in Figure 2.6 above, the hydraulic conductivity can be determine by: Deriving from Equation 3: where; Hydraulic gradient i is And area through which the water flow, Then, Thus, hydraulic conductivity for an unconfined aquifer (after integrating the above equation) is (Equation 16) Borehole Permeameter Tests There are many borehole tests developed to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. The most common in-situ borehole tests are as follow: Slug test Two-stage borehole test/ Boutwell Permeameter Variable head test In-situ constant head test Slug test is one of the cheapest in-situ field methods to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. The procedure of this test involves the rapid adding or removing a slug or water into a monitoring well. The slug can be of anything that can displace the volume of the water in the well, e.g. water, plastic tubing capped at both ends, and other material of known volume and can fit into the monitoring well. The rate of rise and fall of the groundwater level is then observed until it reaches an equilibrium state. In a variable head test, a slug is introduced into the monitoring well by either adding in a measured volume of water into the well or other materials mentioned earlier. The rate of water level fall is then measured in time. This is called falling head test. The water can also be removed out from the well by using a bailer or a pump. The rate of water level rise is then measured with time. This is called a rising head test. Depending on the properties of the aquifer and the soil, and the size of the slug used the water can either returns to its original water level before the test quickly or very slowly. For instance, if the porosity of the soil is high then the water level will returns very quickly to its original water level before the test is done. There is also the constant head test. In this test the water level or head is maintained throughout the test at a given level. This is done by adjusting and measuring the flow rate of the water at intervals from start to the end of the test (Whitlow, 2001). The constant head test is said to give more accurate results, provided the water pressure is controlled so that it would not cause fracturing or other disturbance to the soil (Whitlow, 2001). There are several assumptions made for this test: The soil is homogenous, isotropic, uniformly soaked Infinite boundaries Soil does not swell when wetted The expressions use to calculate the hydraulic conductivity for the above tests depend on whether the stratum is unconfined or unconfined, the position of the bottom of the casing within the stratum and details of the drainage face in the soil (Craig, 2004). The horizontal hydraulic conductivity is tend to be measured if the soil is anisotropic with respect to permeability and if the borehole extends below the bottom of the casing. On the other hand, the vertical hydraulic conductivity is often measured if the casing penetrates below soil level in the bottom of the borehole (Craig, 2004). The following expressions are all recommended in BS 5930 to calculate the hydraulic conductivity (Whitlow, 2001). For variable head test: (Equation 17) Or, (Equation 18) For constant head test: Hvorslevs time lag analysis (Equation 19) Gibsons root-time method (Equation 20) where; A